Objective Setting

"A clear definition of objectives and constraints is essential to the success of the planning process" (USACE 2000, ER-1105-2-100 , Planning Guidance Notebook). Proper articulation of a complete and clear set of objectives paves the way for metric and model development, alternative formulation, and plan comparison. Ecosystem restoration objective setting is particularly challenging due to complex interactions between physical, chemical, biological, economic, and cultural factors co-occurring in natural systems.

Types of Objectives
Although both may exist for a single project, two common motivations for ecosystem restoration are the improvement of the environment and accompanying natural resources (i.e., environmental benefits) and the enhanced provision of ecosystem goods and services. Although this distinction may appear semantic, ecosystem goods and services (i.e., "the benefits people obtain from ecosystems", Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005) are fundamentally distinct from environmental benefits because of their association with human values (i.e., they are socio-centric).

Further complicating the issue, environmental change may be measured by both ecosystem structure and function. “Ecosystem structure refers to both the composition of the ecosystem (i.e., its various parts) and the physical and biological organization defining how those parts are organized. Ecosystem function describes a process that takes place in an ecosystem as a result of the interactions of the plants, animals, and other organisms in the ecosystem with each other or their environment” (National Research Council 2005). Restoration planning is likely to require both structural and functional objectives, and environmental benefits and ecosystem goods and services may both be reported for the same project (See the example below).

Example of a single flood-related objective for riparian restoration interpreted through different types of objectives.
Paradigm	Ecosystem Structure	Ecosystem Function
Environmental Benefits	Maintain channel morphology sufficient to induce overbank flooding at a 2-year recurrence interval for cottonwood seed dispersal.	Enhance riparian denitrification.
Ecosystem Goods and Services	Provide peak flows sufficient to maintain commercially-valuable riparian timber.	Increase riparian retention of fine sediment to avoid costly filtration.

Detailed planning objectives should also agree with and correspond to higher level objectives. These may take the form of strategic or tactical objectives for large regional projects (e.g., the Everglades) or national policy-specified objectives (USACE 2000, ER-1105-2-100 , Planning Guidance Notebook). Appropriate connectivity between these objectives facilitates the design of metrics that translate across multiple levels of decision making and reporting. The process of developing objectives that are nested within a larger hierarchy is challenging, but should seek to address the highest level of objectives possible (e.g., USACE restoration policies, the Civil Works campaign plan, the Principles and Standards) while maintaining detail sufficient for on-the-ground project planning and implementation.

Techniques for Objective Setting
There is not one single technique for setting objectives, but many sources of guidance from which to draw. A few items of particular note are listed below, and the reader is encouraged to examine other published and online materials for additional information:

• Structured objective setting: Numerous authors encourage the use of a step-wise process for objective setting, such as:
  • Step 1: Write down the concerns you want to address.
  • Step 2: Convert the general concerns into succinct objectives.
  • Step 3: Structure objectives by separating ends from means.
  • Step 4: Clarify what is meant by each objective.
• Application of existing assessments: Ongoing assessments by non-profit entities (e.g., NatureServe), state departments of natural resources (e.g., conservation plans), and other federal agencies (e.g., NOAA habitat conservation programs, USGS Gap Analysis) are excellent sources of existing conditions for ecosystems and often highlight problem areas for restoration.
• Use of conceptual models: Conceptual models tell the story of how the system works, and conceptual model development provides a forum to discuss goals and objectives.
• Referenced-based approaches: Reference ecosystems help project teams identify desirable characteristics of a system and natural ranges of variability, and incorporate those into objectives.

Evaluating Objectives
Objective sets should be iteratively developed and critically evaluated by the project team, stakeholders, and other interested parties. The following list provides a few key points of consideration for evaluating objectives.

• Minimally, a good list of objectives must be complete and clear. A complete list includes all objectives, primary and secondary, relevant for making a decision. Clear objectives state exactly what is meant and the direction of preference to minimize multiple interpretations.
• Objectives should not include the metrics and alternatives. For instance, the objective “plant 50 acres of wetlands” confounds the action of planting with the objective of “increasing wetland extent.”
• Objectives with key thresholds in achievement should be explicitly noted. For instance, if a waterbird requires a minimum nesting island size of 20-acres to breed, then an 18-acre island does not meet its needs.
• Dependency amongst objectives may be difficult to determine, but when dependencies are well-understood, they should be explicitly noted and incorporated.
• Critical evaluation of project objectives relative to higher objectives will help the planning team address the project’s efficacy relative to scope, funding, timing, and other limitations of a particular authority as well as discuss the project’s merit during regional and national budgeting.